Why then aren’t there starships on their way to exoplanets as we speak? [18] The dimensions and performance of Dyson's vehicles are given in the following table: Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved are a few percent of the speed of light (0.08–0.1c). オリオン計画（オリオンけいかく、Project Orion）またはオライオン計画（オライオンけいかく）は、アメリカにて1950年代 - 60年代にかけて行われた宇宙船の研究計画で、原子力推進宇宙船の、世界で最初の工学的な研究開発計画である。このアイデアは1955年にスタニスワフ・ウラムほかが提案した。, 計画では、核分裂または核融合による爆弾を宇宙船から後部に放出し、200フィート (60m) のところで爆発させ、鋼鉄かアルミニウムの板で爆発の衝撃を受けて進むことが考えられていた。原子力を使用することにより、オリオンではロケットエンジンの理想である、大きい推力と高い噴射速度（比推力）の両方を実現する予定であった。, オリオンの性能の見積もりは素晴らしく、SF作家のジェリー・パーネルは、計画の元リーダーフリーマン・ダイソンが、一度のミッションで大規模で恒久的な月面基地を提供することができる、と語ったと伝えている。また、オリオンは（冥王星が太陽にもっとも接近している時に最大加速で飛行すれば）1年のうちに地球から冥王星に到達し、戻ってくることができるとも言われている。, さらにフリーマン・ダイソンは、オリオン型惑星間宇宙船のアイデアを恒星間宇宙船に適用している。ペイロードが2万トン（数百人から成る小さな町を充分に維持できる）ほどになるので、宇宙船は必然的に大きくなる。全質量は1個約1トンの核爆弾30万個の燃料込みで、40万トンほどになる。爆弾は3秒ごとに爆発させられ、宇宙船を1Gで10日間加速し、光速の30分の1（秒速1万km）に到達する。この速度でオリオン型恒星間宇宙船はアルファ・ケンタウリに140年で到着する。この宇宙船に目標星での減速能力を与えるには、2段式に再設計しなければならない。オリオン型恒星間宇宙船は宇宙船としては最小限の能力しか持っていないが、現在の科学技術で建造し、送り出すことのできる恒星間輸送の形態の1つではある。, SPACEDAILY ROCKET SCIENCE - The Case For Orion, UNSCEAR "Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation" retrieved 2012-1-11, 樫本喜一:「オリオン計画－核パルス推進型宇宙船 -　1950年代後半、米国物理学者たちが構想した「2001年・宇宙の旅」」、『現代生命哲学研究』第3号 (2014年3月)、頁31-49．.

This temperature emits ultraviolet light, which is poorly transmitted through most plasmas. Take a look, Stars Fly Past Planet, Saving World from Isolation, Black holes need the right ingredients to fire stuff into space, Why Humanity Must Evolve on a Societal Level Before Finding Extraterrestrial Life. in the years 1973–1974.

The shock-absorber designs could be tested at full-scale on Earth using chemical explosives. [24] After initial infrastructure development and investment, the marginal cost of additional nuclear bombs in mass production can be relatively low. It is a type of bomb. Early versions of this vehicle were proposed to take off from the ground with significant associated nuclear fallout; later versions were presented for use only in space. The first appearance of the idea in print appears to be Robert A. Heinlein's 1940 short story, "Blowups Happen. A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 million tons of TNT (5.0 PJ). Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. After later study it was determined that this happened because the object happened to have graphite oil on those spots. The following can be found in George Dyson's book. This helps keep the pusher plate cool. News that there existed a relatively simple way to insulate metals against even close range nuclear blasts electrified engineers of the day, including Freeman Dyson. The use of 0.03 kt (sea-level yield) bombs would give vehicle mass of 880 tons. The design temperature of the shockwave, 120,600 °F (67,000 °C), emits ultraviolet light. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy. Some plans called for the pusher plate to be made of uranium so colonists could slowly cannibalize it for use in the colony’s reactor. PNEs were an area of some research from the late 1950s into the 1980s, primarily in the United States and Soviet Union.

Numerous proposals were investigated, from multiple guns poking over the edge of the pusher plate to rocket propelled bombs launched from roller coaster tracks, however the final reference design used a simple gas gun to shoot the devices through a hole in the center of the pusher plate. Dyson, F. J.: "Interstellar Transport", Physics Today, Oct (1968), pp.41-45. Project Daedalus later proposed fusion explosives (deuterium or tritium pellets) detonated by electron beam inertial confinement. [4]. It followed Operation Upshot–Knothole and preceded Operation Teapot. From 1957 to 1964 this information was used to design a spacecraft propulsion system called Orion, in which nuclear explosives would be thrown behind a pusher-plate mounted on the bottom of a spacecraft and exploded. The vehicle's propulsion system and its test program would violate the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963, as currently written, which prohibits all nuclear detonations except those conducted underground as an attempt to slow the arms race and to limit the amount of radiation in the atmosphere caused by nuclear detonations. In order to improve on this performance while reducing size and cost, Dyson also considered an alternative momentum limited pusher plate design where an ablation coating of the exposed surface is substituted to get rid of the excess heat. [17]. Stability was initially thought to be a problem due to inaccuracies in the placement of the bombs, but it was later shown that the effects would cancel out. However, this was regarded as too small for anything other than an orbital test vehicle and the team soon focused on a 4,000 ton "base design". Nuclear pulse propulsion makes it possible to achieve the speeds necessary to cross the vast distances between stars in under a human lifespan. The model landed by parachute undamaged and is in the collection of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Development of Techniques to Enhance Man/Machine Communication by Stanford Research Institute, August 1974, FBI File: Joe Exotic’s Greater Wynnewood Exotic Animal Park, Public Affairs Guidance OPSEC and Public Engagement, 2018, Impact and Implications of Chemical Weapons Use in the Iran-Iraq War, April 1988, Congressional & Senatorial Correspondence, Government Employee Manuals / Orientation, Politician Public Financial Disclosure Statements, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Collection, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Collection, National Security Agency (NSA) Collection, Office of Technology Assessment Collection, FBI Files / Domestic & Foreign Intelligence, Freedom of Information Act / Research Tools, Advanced Propulsion Concepts (4th Symposium) Palo Alto, California, April 26, 27, 28 1965. Specifically, using modern thermonuclear bomblets, it would be possible to accelerate one of the larger Orion concept craft to one tenth the speed of light. Radiation shielding effectiveness increases exponentially with shield thickness, see gamma ray for a discussion of shielding. It proposed the use of a shaped-charge fusion-boosted fission explosive. Experiments were designed to test pusher plates in nuclear fireballs and long-term tests of pusher plates could occur in space.

Missions that were designed for an Orion vehicle in the original project included single stage (i.e., directly from Earth's surface) to Mars and back, and a trip to one of the moons of Saturn. Dyson, F. J.: "Death of a Project", Science, 149 (3680) (1965), pp.141-144. True engineering tests of the vehicle systems were thought to be impossible because several thousand nuclear explosions could not be performed in any one place. At 0.1c, an Orion starship would require 100 years to travel 10 light years. A 100% pure fusion explosive has yet to be successfully developed, according to declassified US government documents, although relatively clean PNEs (Peaceful nuclear explosions) were tested for canal excavation by the Soviet Union in the 1970s with 98% fusion yield in the Taiga test's 15 kiloton devices, 0.3 kilotons fission, [31] [35] which excavated part of the proposed Pechora–Kama Canal. If the vehicle is to be accelerated at 1 Earth gravity (9.81 m/s2) with this velocity transfer, then the pulse rate is one explosion every three seconds.

[31] That estimate is based on no threshold model assumptions, a method often used in estimates of statistical deaths from other industrial activities. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work The World Set Free. So a two-stage detuned spring and piston shock absorber design was developed. [23]. The mirror and channel filler were open ended, and in this open end a flat plate of tungsten propellant was placed. [14] In interviews, the designers contemplated the large ship as a possible interstellar ark. During take-off, there were concerns of danger from fluidic shrapnel being reflected from the ground. In 1989, a similar concept was studied by the U.S. Navy and NASA in Project Longshot. Ask Ethan: How Do We Know The Age Of The Solar System. A smaller and lighter fusion reactor might be possible in the future when more sophisticated methods have been devised to control magnetic confinement and prevent plasma instabilities. Parts 1, 2 and 3 [54 Pages, 6.9MB], Nuclear Pulse Propulsion (Orion) Technical Status Summary and Ground-Oriented Development Plan, May 1, 1965 [43 Pages, 3.2MB], Stability Study of Nuclear Pulse Propulsion (Orion) Engine System, April 30, 1965 [91 Pages, 3.0MB], Nuclear Pulse Propulsion Project (Project Orion) Volume IV, Engineering Experimental Tests, Technical Summary Report, January 1965 [162 Pages, 9.3MB], Technical Summary Report – Nuclear Pulse Propulsion Project – Volume IV, Experimental Structural Response, July 1963 [96 Pages, 6.2MB]. The reasons included lack of a mission requirement, the fact that no one in the U.S. government could think of any reason to put thousands of tons of payload into orbit, the decision to focus on rockets for the Moon mission, and ultimately the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963. In place of traditional chemical propellant, such as that in a chemical rocket, the rocket would be fueled by salts of plutonium or 20 percent enriched uranium. Just not from a political one. [9] The figures for the comparison with Saturn V are taken from this section and converted from metric (kg) to US short tons (abbreviated "t" here). It was soon realized that, should an explosion fail, the 1,100,000–2,200,000-pound (500,000–1,000,000 kg) pusher plate would tear away the airbag on the rebound. [32] Indirect effects could matter for whether the overall influence of an Orion-based space program on future human global mortality would be a net increase or a net decrease, including if change in launch costs and capabilities affected space exploration, space colonization, the odds of long-term human species survival, space-based solar power, or other hypotheticals. It is perhaps the only weapon we could leverage that, on short notice, would give us a fighting chance against that sort of threat. The calculated velocity was interesting enough that the crew trained a high-speed camera on the plate which, unfortunately, only appeared in one frame indicating a very high lower bound for the speed of the plate. [21]. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would be similarly in the 10% range and pure Matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. Nuclear bombs have had yields between 10 tons TNT and 50 megatons for the Tsar Bomba. For other spaceflight vehicles called Orion, see, 1,100,000–2,200,000-pound (500,000–1,000,000. It was then indefinitely mothballed, waiting for a more favorable political climate. A thermonuclear weapon, fusion weapon or hydrogen bomb, is a second-generation nuclear weapon design. Author Stephen Baxter's science fiction novel Ark employs an Orion-class generation ship to escape ecological disaster on Earth. At 2–3 microseconds the channel filler would transmit some of the energy to the propellant, which vaporized. This ensures the change in velocity is the same for the inner and outer parts of the plate.

The oil absorbed the intense heat of the nuclear conflagration, boiling away in the process but leaving the metal underneath wholly unblemished. Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann; Tyson, Neil deGrasse (2013). Project Daedalus was to be a robotic interstellar probe to Barnard's Star that would travel at 12% of the speed of light.

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